PSYCHOLOGY

BOREDOM, UNSTRUCTURED PLAY, AND DIGITAL MEDIA EXPOSURE: IMPLICATIONS FOR CREATIVITY, COGNITIVE, AND SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN 21ST-CENTURY CHILDHOOD

Editor 30 сентября, 2025
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Nurlan Mammadov,
Doctor of Philosophy in Pedagogy
Department of Pedagogy and Psychology
Baku Slavic University
Azerbaijan, Baku
ORCID: 0000-0002-9673-0862

DOI https://10.5281/zenodo.17236814

Keywords: childhood development, boredom, unstructured play, creativity, digital media, cognitive development, socio-emotional skills

Abstract. The rapid proliferation of digital technologies in the 21st century has fundamentally reshaped childhood experiences, particularly by limiting opportunities for unstructured leisure and boredom. Boredom, far from being a simple void of activity, serves as a crucial catalyst for the development of creativity, cognitive skills, and socio-emotional competencies in children. This paper provides a comprehensive review of theoretical and empirical studies spanning general psychology, developmental psychology, and pedagogy, emphasizing how periods of disengagement allow children to invent games, construct narratives, and engage in exploratory behaviors. Historical perspectives trace the conceptualization of boredom from its early description as an emotional state in the 1930s–1940s to its recognition in the late 20th century as a facilitator of “flow” experiences and creative engagement. Contemporary research highlights the emerging challenges posed by excessive screen exposure, including attention deficits, delayed language development, and reduced creative initiative. Cross-cultural studies further underscore the nuanced interplay between leisure experiences, educational environments, and socio-cultural factors in shaping children’s creative potential. The findings suggest that fostering structured opportunities for unstructured play, while carefully managing digital media exposure, is essential for holistic childhood development. By reframing boredom as an adaptive and constructive experience, educators, parents, and policymakers can support the cultivation of imaginative, resilient, and cognitively agile individuals capable of navigating the complexities of modern society.

Introduction

Children in the 21st century are growing up in an environment saturated with digital technologies. Devices such as smartphones, tablets, and televisions have become indispensable components of their everyday routines, shaping the way they perceive, interact with, and engage with the world. Yet, a critical question arises: how often do children immersed in digital media experience boredom, and in what ways does this state influence their cognitive, creative, and socio-emotional development? Psychological research has consistently demonstrated that boredom is not merely an absence of stimulation or a passive state; rather, it serves as a catalyst for activating neural networks associated with creativity, imagination, and self-directed learning. When deprived of constant external stimuli, children tend to invent games, construct narratives, and engage in exploratory behaviors, all of which contribute to the enhancement of their creative thinking, problem-solving skills, and emotional intelligence. However, the omnipresence and immediate gratification offered by digital screens often disrupt this natural developmental process. Excessive exposure to screen-based media can limit opportunities for unstructured play and imaginative engagement, leading to a range of developmental concerns, including diminished attention span, delayed language acquisition, and increased risk of behavioral and regulatory difficulties.

Main part. As a result of the rapid proliferation of digital technologies, children’s opportunities for traditional leisure experiences — including the chance to feel  boredom and to independently create their own activities — have become significantly limited. However, pedagogical and psychological literature indicates that boredom activates neural pathways associated with creativity and serves as a driving force behind the development of initiative and self-regulation skills (Child Mind Institute, 2020; Tekeci et al., 2024).

          Consequently, the role of free time and boredom experiences in children’s development has emerged as a focal point in contemporary scholarly discourse and is substantiated by numerous studies conducted across different countries. Within this context, the question “Should children be allowed to experience boredom?” has evolved from a matter of everyday observation into one of the central topics of pedagogical and psychological research.

          Research on the role of leisure time (leisure, free play, unstructured time) and the experience of boredom in children’s development began to attract systematic scholarly attention in the mid-20th century. Early theoretical approaches of the 1930s–1940s focused on describing “boredom” as an emotional state within the framework of general psychology (Fenichel, 1934; Greenson, 1953).

          During the 1960s and 1970s, studies in the fields of pedagogy and developmental psychology began to emphasize the importance of free play — that is, unstructured leisure time — in the development of children’s cognitive and social skills (Parten, 1961; Singer, 1975). At this stage, boredom was primarily conceptualized as a “byproduct of free time.” In the 1980s and 1990s, researchers in the field of creativity psychology (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Harris, 1998) started to reconceptualize boredom as one of the essential emotional experiences facilitating children’s transition into a state of “flow,” a condition characterized by deep engagement and intrinsic motivation. Since the early 2000s, the study of boredom and leisure experiences in children has taken a new direction in response to the increasing influence of technology, particularly the pervasive presence of screen-based devices. Researchers such as Goetz, Pekrun, and Danckert began to empirically investigate the relationships between boredom, cognitive development, motivation, and creativity. In parallel, clinical psychology studies explored the links between boredom and various emotional difficulties, including depression and anxiety. From the 2010s to the present, numerous studies indexed in SCOPUS and Web of Science have increasingly focused on the complex interactions between boredom, creativity, and screen use in children (Danckert & Eastwood, 2020; Khalaf et al., 2022; Schwartze et al., 2023).

Building on this international body of work, a comparative perspective reveals that the study of boredom, creativity, and leisure in children has not been confined to Western contexts alone but has also found significant expression within Russian psychological and pedagogical traditions. While Western research has increasingly emphasized the cognitive, emotional, and technological dimensions of boredom and creativity, Russian scholars have approached the topic through a strong focus on developmental, cultural, and educational frameworks.

          This convergence of perspectives highlights how boredom is not merely a negative emotional state but can serve as a catalyst for exploration, self-expression, and the cultivation of creative abilities, depending on the surrounding cultural and pedagogical conditions. The interplay between these global and Russian research trajectories thus underscores the multifaceted nature of boredom in childhood and the necessity of integrating diverse methodological approaches to fully understand its role in fostering or hindering creativity. Russian scholars have also conducted extensive research on children’s leisure experiences, the development of creative abilities, and the pedagogical and psychological significance of boredom. Professor A. N. Poddiakov from the Faculty of Psychology at Moscow State University examined the formation of experimental activity and the development of research initiative in preschool children. E. O. Shishova and A. Z. Akhatova, in their studies at Kazan Federal University, investigated the interaction between communicative creativity and the school environment. L. F.

Bayanova, D. A. Bukhalenkova, and their colleagues empirically demonstrated the impact of children’s participation in artistic activities during leisure time on creativity indicators. Furthermore, several studies have explored the influence of the cultural and educational environment on the development of creative potential among primary school students, as well as the socio-cultural differences in components of creativity among Russian and Tajik schoolchildren (Poddiakov, Shishova & Akhatova, Bayanova et al., 2023).

Conclusion

          In the rapidly evolving digital landscape of the 21st century, children’s experiences of boredom and unstructured leisure time have become increasingly rare yet profoundly significant. Far from being a mere state of idleness, boredom serves as a critical catalyst for cognitive, creative, and socio-emotional development. It is during these moments of disengagement that children invent, explore, and reflect — processes that lay the foundation for imagination, problem-solving, and self-regulation.

          However, the omnipresence of screens and digital stimuli threatens to displace these formative experiences, potentially limiting creativity, attention span, and emotional growth. Research across multiple disciplines and cultural contexts underscores the importance of preserving unstructured time in children’s daily routines, highlighting the nuanced balance between technological engagement and developmental needs.
Therefore, embracing boredom and fostering opportunities for free play are not acts of indulgence but essential investments in the next generation’s creative potential. By consciously integrating unstructured experiences into modern childhoods, educators, parents, and policymakers can cultivate resilient, imaginative, and cognitively agile individuals capable of thriving in an increasingly complex world.

References

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  2. Danckert, J., & Eastwood, J. D. (2020). Boredom in the age of digital media. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 24(10), 1–12.
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